Plant–animal interactions in a changing climate: integrating botanical and zoological perspectives for sustainable ecosystem management

Abstract

Plant–animal interactions form the structural and functional backbone of terrestrial ecosystems, influencing pollination, herbivory, seed dispersal, and nutrient cycling. Climate change is rapidly altering these interactions through shifts in temperature, precipitation regimes, atmospheric CO₂, and disturbance patterns. These environmental changes affect plant physiology, phenology, chemical defenses, and reproductive strategies, while simultaneously reshaping animal behavior, metabolism, and distribution. Asynchronous phenological shifts-known as mismatches-are becoming increasingly common, threatening mutualistic relationships such as pollination and seed dispersal. At the same time, elevated CO₂ and altered temperatures are modifying herbivore feeding rates and plant defense expression, contributing to cascading ecological and evolutionary consequences. This review synthesizes botanical and zoological perspectives to provide an integrated understanding of how climate change influences plant–animal interactions across multiple ecological levels. It highlights emerging methodologies, including network modeling, long-term phenological monitoring, and experimental climate manipulations, and outlines strategies for sustainable ecosystem management. Emphasizing interdisciplinary approaches, the review underscores the need for adaptive management, restoration practices that account for both plant and animal physiology, and policies that enhance resilience in a rapidly changing climate.